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Germany and Austria Surrounded
By October 1918, although France and Belgium were still far from being free of German troops, it was clear to all sides that the western front was slowly collapsing. At the same time, Allied forces were steadily advancing northward from the south, liberating much of Serbia and putting pressure upon Austria-Hungary. Neither Germany nor Austria-Hungary was yet ready to surrender, but Germany’s government was undergoing a revolution, and Austria-Hungary’s army was collapsing amid mass mutiny.
The Kaiser Steps Aside
Germany’s first revolution was a quiet one that happened in two stages. On September 29, 1918, Germany’s top two generals, Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff, pressured Kaiser Wilhelm II into establishing a constitutional monarchy, because the Allied forces refused to negotiate with the kaiser and insisted upon dealing with representatives of the German people instead.
On October 2, the kaiser relinquished all his authority regarding military decisions to the new Parliament—an act that, for all practical purposes, reduced the kaiser to a figurehead. His cousin, Prince Max von Baden, was named chancellor and effectively assumed leadership of the country. Although the prince immediately began to make inquiries to the Allies about an armistice, he was not ready to surrender unconditionally, as he believed that he could negotiate favorable terms for Germany, despite continuing losses on the battlefield. A lengthy exchange of diplomatic notes went on for the next month.
Independence in Eastern Europe
Bulgaria was the first of the Central Powers to surrender, signing an armistice in Salonica on September 29, 1918. On October 7, Poland declared itself an independent state, which immediately sparked fighting between Poland and Ukraine over the possession of the border territory of East Galicia. On October 14, the provisional government of Czechoslovakia was created. On October 25, a Hungarian National Council was established in Budapest in preparation for an independent Hungary, separate from Austria.
The Elusive Peace
As the war petered out, President Woodrow Wilson of the United States became the primary Allied representative for handling the peace negotiations. Earlier in the war, when the United States was neutral, Wilson had repeatedly attempted to broker peace among the warring powers and had made sincere efforts to work out an agreement that would be fair to all sides. By 1918, however, Wilson’s position had changed considerably. Now that American soldiers were fighting and dying in France Germany and Austria had considerably less leverage. Wilson was now determined that neither country would gain peace cheaply.
The Central Powers’ Attempts at Diplomacy
On October 3–4, 1918, the first joint German-Austrian diplomatic note was sent to Wilson, requesting an armistice and suggesting that all hostilities end without any penalties for either side. Wilson rejected the note on October 8, stating that he would not even discuss the idea of an armistice until France, Belgium, and Serbia were completely free of German and Austrian forces.
On October 12, the German government announced that it had accepted Wilson’s requirement and that it would withdraw its forces from France and Belgium. Despite the announcement, however, the fighting on the western front continued without letup. On October 21, Germany announced that it would cease all submarine warfare. On October 25, Allied military commanders met at Senlis, France, to discuss formal terms for an armistice. Although they differed over details, all agreed that Germany must be made unable to make war again.
The Dissolution of Austria-Hungary
By the end of October, Germany was still actively trying to broker a favorable way out of the war, but Austria could no longer afford to wait, because the country was already falling apart. On October 27, 1918, Austria approached the Allies independently for an armistice and ordered the Austrian army to retreat the same day. On October 29, Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes proclaimed the establishment of a southern Slavic state to be called Yugoslavia.
On October 30, an Austrian delegation arrived in Italy to surrender unconditionally. That same day, Hungary formally declared its independence. On November 3, all the terms of the Austrian armistice were in place, and on the following day, Austria-Hungary formally ceased to exist.
The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire
On October 14, 1918, Sultan Mehmed VI of the Ottoman Empire, having suffered heavy territorial losses over the past year and facing a British invasion of Turkey itself, requested peace terms. An armistice was signed on October 30. One of its terms was that the Dardanelles be opened immediately to Allied ships. In the coming months, most of the territory of the Ottoman Empire would be redistributed under the trusteeship of various Allied forces and eventually reorganized into independent countries.
Events Timeline
September 29, 1918
Wilhelm II pressured into accepting parliamentary government
Bulgaria surrenders, signs armistice
October 2
Wilhelm II hands Parliament authority on military decisions
Prince Max von Baden named chancellor of Germany
October 7
Poland declares itself an independent state
October 12
Germany agrees to withdraw forces from France, Belgium
October 14
Provisional government formed in Czechoslovakia
Ottoman sultan requests peace terms for Turkey
October 21
Germany announces end to submarine warfare
October 25
Hungarian National Council established in Budapest
Allied leaders meet at Senlis to establish formal armistice terms
October 29
Yugoslavia proclaims itself an independent state
October 30
Turkey signs armistice
November 3
Austria signs armistice, begins to withdraw forces
