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The US Reaches the Front Lines
The official US entrance into the war in 1917 had given the Allies hope in the face of Russia’s exit. Even a year after the declaration of war, few US troops had participated in combat. While Britain and France wanted US troops to be integrated into their own units, the US insisted that they would fight as an independent army under their own commanders. The delays this caused drew bitter criticism from the French and British, who were paying a high price to hold the line at the front. Many in France and Britain feared that they would lose the war before the Americans fired a shot.
Despite delays in deployment, a compromise was reached in May 1918 which committed 130,000 American troops to the front lines to fight with the French and British forces, just in time to meet the latest German offensive. The US forces were involved in several battles, most notably at Cantigny, on the Somme. Here, 4,000 American soldiers attacked German forces on May 28, while the French provided cover with tanks, airplanes, and artillery. They successfully liberated the town of Cantigny and then held the line during three successive days of German counterattacks. US forces suffered over 1,000 casualties during the engagement.
The Influenza Outbreak
During the summer of 1918, an unusually severe strain of influenza spread rapidly around the world. Although influenza is not normally associated with high mortality rates, this strain was especially deadly, and it would eventually kill millions.
The cause of the outbreak is unknown, but the war was certainly a contributing factor. First, the war encouraged large-scale movements of people back and forth around the globe, which accelerated the spread of the virus. Second, it is thought that the numerous war-ravaged regions of the world experienced poorer nutrition and less sanitary conditions, leaving their populations especially susceptible.
At the same time, the spread of the disease directly affected the war itself. Young adults were especially vulnerable to this strain of influenza and all sides lost soldiers to the outbreak, but Germany and Austria-Hungary were hit especially hard, with the armies of both countries becoming severely weakened just as the Allies went on the offensive. The epidemic continued well into 1919, when it suddenly died out just as quickly as it had started.
The Allied Counteroffensive
Throughout June and early July 1918, the Germans attempted a series of offensive actions, still trying to break through the Allied defense lines in France. While lines held, in part due to the newly provided American reinforcements, by June the Germans once again threatened Paris.
On July 18, the Allies launched a counteroffensive combining forces from France, Britain, Italy, and the United States, pushing back German forces and shifting momentum back to the Allies. The Germans suffered further disaster when the Allied forces struck at Amiens on August 8, losing 30,000 soldiers in the following days of fighting. German commanders and Kaiser Wilhelm II knew that the end loomed. Intensified Allied attacks continually drove back German lines, costing them ground every day throughout August and September.
Turkey in Retreat
In the Near East, meanwhile, the tide had turned in the war with the Ottoman Empire. Since initial defeats at Gallipoli and Mesopotamia in 1916, Britain had successfully captured Baghdad along with all of Mesopotamia. Farther south, on the Arabian Peninsula, revolts by desert tribesmen had broken Turkey’s grip on the region.
In December 1917, the British captured the city of Jerusalem in Palestine and slowly began advancing toward Turkey proper. Finally, on September 19, 1918, the British launched a direct attack on the Turkish front at Megiddo and won a major victory that forced the Turks into a full-scale retreat. By mid-October, Turkey was asking for peace terms.
The Final Phase of Combat
Although the Russian exit from and American entrance into the war were major developments—the degree to which they impacted the war is debatable. By the spring of 1918, both sides’ armies were exhausted from years of fighting and had little reason to hope that an end would soon come. While there were some hints of peace discussions late in the summer, political and military leaders were still planning combat operations intended to last well into 1919.
Ultimately, Russia’s departure and the arrival of American troops effectively balanced each other out while the catastrophic influenza outbreak placed a heavy burden on both sides. Ultimately, the real trigger for the end of the war appears to have come from mass mutinies within the Austro-Hungarian and German militaries.
Events Timeline
May 2
General Pershing compromises on sending US troops to the front
May 28
US victory at Cantigny
July 18
Allies begin major counteroffensive
August 8-11
Allied victory at Amiens
September 19
Turkey defeated at Megiddo
