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Julius Caesar and Octavian/Augustus
In 47 BCE, Julius Caesar, victor of the civil war against Pompey, became dictator. During his short reign, he began a major reconstruction of the government, but was assassinated in 44 BCE by a conspiracy of senators acting to save the Republic. After his death, Mark Antony and Octavian, an heir listed in Caesar’s will, fought for power before creating the Second Triumvirate, a three-pronged dictatorship, with the Roman general Lepidus. However, it was not to last. Octavian removed Lepidus in 36 BCE and defeated Mark Antony at Actium in 30 BCE. In the next 20 years, Octavian, now named Augustus, created the Principate, a new form of Roman government led by an unelected Princeps. This position would evolve into Emperor by mid-first century CE.
Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero
Tiberius, an accomplished general, took over in 14 CE, further consolidating the absolute power of the Princeps. His successor, Caligula, was quickly murdered by the Praetorian Guard, who proclaimed Claudius Emperor in 41 CE. Less glamorous than his predecessors, Claudius regularized imperial administration and expanded the Roman elite. He was succeeded by Nero in 55 CE, who, after five good years, rapidly declined into murderous depravity. After executing some of the Empire's best generals and senators, he committed suicide in 69 CE, leaving behind an empire in revolt and chaos.
Vespasian, the Flavian Dynasty, and Trajan
After Nero, four claimants to power emerged. Vespasian, a commander in Judea, emerged as victor from the Year of the Four Emperors and reigned from 69-79 CE. He established the Flavian dynasty, represented by his sons Titus (reigned from 80-81 CE) and Domitian (reigned from 81-96 CE). A more sober administration emerged, but conflicts with Germanic tribes indicated future difficulties. Dacian marauding in the Danube region provided opportunities for Roman conquest, realized under Nerva (reigned from 96-98 CE) and Trajan (reigned from 98-117 CE). The most popular Roman Emperor after Augustus, Trajan also attempted to conquer Parthia, but died before the troubled region could be adequately secured.
Hadrian, Antonius Pius, and Marcus Aurelius
Trajan’s successor, Hadrian (reigned from 117-138 CE), abandoned Parthian expansion, instead maintaining gains in Dacia and Moesia, which allowed the gradual process of Romanization to begin. However, in his attempts to regularize regional governments in the Empire and reorganize Italy's judicial districts, he incurred the resentment of Italian elites and died unpopular. Antoninus Pius reigned from 138-161 CE over a peaceful, wealthy, even though the economy remained underdeveloped and exploitative. All the while, German tribes had been migrating west toward the Danube and Rhine border areas. From the 160s CE, the Emperor Marcus Aurelius dealt with these tribes crossing the Rhine and Danube in numbers never seen before. Though ultimately able to beat them back, were a sign of looming problems for the Empire as they increased in cost and chaos.
