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Roman imperial history, which began from the 60s BCE, centers the persistent dilemma of how to govern a state and society that was expanding geographically and demographically. The republican ideal of Rome had made sense when Rome was a city-state focused on its own survival and the domination of surrounding regions. However, by the middle of the final century BCE, Rome had become the center of a multi-continent empire stretching from Spain to Iraq. The ensuing civil unrest from 80 to 30 BCE could thus be viewed as a response to the inability of an expanded city government to cope with the needs of an empire's administration.
Part of these needs consisted of large armies far from home. Because of this, powerful generals emerged, with their dependent soldiers strengthening their political power in return for material survival. Often, the Senate was unable to challenge these powerful generals and their mass bases of political support. While the empire had an excess of politically powerful generals, a lacking need was an efficient empire-wide civil service and economic administration. Roman taxation and provincial administration were often erratic or irrational. Many times, Rome would respond ineffectually to local disturbances, which then grew to such extents that Rome had to invest large human and material assets to resolve crises that better administration would have prevented.
While Roman statesmen had a tradition of reform in the name of the Republic, the inauguration of the principate under Octavian, later called Augustus, was a complete departure from tradition. Augustus's new government set Rome on an entirely new course, creating a powerful government that could more effectively administer its empire. Even if Augustus may not have intended it, the Republic was wholly replaced by his successors in favor of outright Empire with an authoritarian, if not autocratic, ruler.
A persistent problem of the imperial period was in the growing personal rule of the sovereign, with some emperors, like Tiberius, doing a passable job, and others, like Caligula and Nero, bringing the state to the brink of civil war and anarchy. As seen in these examples, too much relied on the wisdom and fitness of the ruler. Part of this was due to the close Emperor-military relationship. The ever-growing military depended entirely upon the emperor, but the emperor also depended on military support. It was only at the end of the first century, when a truly professional civil service emerged, that the character of the emperor became somewhat less important. Still, checks and balances—a clear intent of the Republican period—were lacking, to the detriment of both the state and society.
Socially, the imperial era from 40 BCE to 161 CE was a dynamic period. While Rome-based patrician families initially dominated society through the Senate and urban wealth, from the 40s BCE onward, bourgeoisie and wealthier elements from other regions of Italy and certain provinces began to enter the elite arena. Many of them were of equestrian origin: knights-turned-businessmen with financial interests in the capital. By the early part of the first century, growing numbers of this new class were being enrolled in the Senate, and by the time of Vespasian (70), emperors could emerge from that class. This coincided with tribal elements from Gaul and other eastern areas being allowed to run for positions of power in the Empire, eventually ascending to senatorial rank. Thus, an enfranchisement of people beyond Rome's gates was well under way.
The end of the early and best years of the empire—under Marcus Aurelius in particular—brought Rome face-to-face with what would become its most enduring challenge: the German tribes. From the time of Augustus, Rome had seen the German tribes alternately as a military threat, source of labor, or a reservoir of auxiliary military forces. Over time, some elements of Germanic society were becoming partially Romanized, especially in the conquered regions near the Danube. This region would eventually become thoroughly Romanized by the 3rd century CE and go on to provide the majority of the empire's generals, as well as several emperors.
Despite Rome being one of the wealthiest cities of the ancient world with the largest population, that strength was somewhat of an illusion. Based on tribute from provinces as well as loot from war, the Roman economy was still strikingly unproductive, non-innovative, and underdeveloped, especially considering the resources at the state’s disposal. The continuing question was how to sustainably develop the economy instead of simply extracting resources from and exploiting the Empire. Rome never came to a satisfactory answer, which would have tremendous consequences following the 160s CE, when the Roman glue would begin to weaken.
