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Battle of Tobruk
At the same time that war was going on in the European and Pacific theaters, conflict also escalated in North Africa, primarily as a result of Italy’s aggression in the region in 1940 and 1941. One of the primary flash points in North Africa was the key port of Tobruk, Libya, which changed hands between the Germans and the British several times and was the site of several major battles.
Originally in Italy’s sphere of influence, Tobruk fell to the British on January 12, 1941, building upon the initiative they had seized after Italy’s defeat in Egypt the previous year. More than a year later, in June 1942, Tobruk fell to the Germans after a long and intensive siege by Field Marshal Erwin Rommel’s tank forces. Then, in November 1942, Tobruk fell once more to the British and remained under their control for the rest of the war.
Battle of El-Alamein
Perhaps the most decisive battle in North Africa was the Battle of El-Alamein, from October 23 to November 3, 1942, in which a powerful British offensive defeated German forces overwhelmingly. The British outnumbered the Germans two to one, and Rommel, who had by this time earned the nickname “Desert Fox” for his brilliant surprise attacks, was away on sick leave when the battle began. As the battle started, Rommel’s substitute died of a heart attack, and by the time Rommel arrived, the situation was hopeless.
Operation Torch
Within days of the British victory at El-Alamein, the Allies launched Operation Torch, the code name for their invasion of North Africa. On November 8, 1942, British and American forces carried out an amphibious landing on the coast of French North Africa (present-day Morocco). The invasion involved more than 100,000 men and over 600 ships, placing it among the largest such invasions in history. Operation Torch was highly successful and enabled the Allies to take more than 1,000 miles of North African coastline.
Tunisia
With Operation Torch completed and many Allied troops on the ground in Africa, the Allies aggressively pursued the Axis forces that had begun retreating into Tunisia. The desert terrain in Tunisia was ideal for a defending force, and it was here that Rommel planned to make a stand against the Allies. The Allies did not begin their offensive into Tunisia until November 25, 1942, however, and the delay of several weeks gave Germany and Italy time to airlift more troops and equipment to the region. Thus, by the time U.S. and British forces began their attacks, the Axis forces substantially outnumbered them.
The Allies faced a difficult challenge in Tunisia, and their progress was very slow. Rommel’s forces fought with tenacity in one battle after another as the fighting continued well into the spring of 1943. Nonetheless, the Allies did consistently gain ground on the Axis forces. On May 7, the Allies took Tunis and soon took the remaining Axis forces in Africa—more than 200,000 in all—prisoner. With that, the war in North Africa was over.
The Invasion of Italy
Following the Axis defeat in North Africa, the Allies landed troops on the island of Sicily. Resistance was quickly overcome, and on July 22, the Sicilian capital of Palermo fell to the Allies. A few days later, Benito Mussolini was dismissed as prime minister by Italy’s king, Viktor Emmanuel III, and Italian officials promptly began approaching the Allies about an armistice. Prior to Mussolini’s ouster, U.S. and British forces had planned an invasion of the Italian mainland, and the sudden turn of events took the Allied leaders by surprise. Although Italy officially surrendered to the Allies on September 8, 1943, the Allied invasion of Italy proceeded as planned, as there were still a large number of German forces stationed in the country.
Following the success in North Africa, British forces landed at Taranto, on the southeastern tip of Italy, on September 2. However, the main invasion did not begin until September 9, the day after Italy’s surrender. The two forces planned to fight their way across the country to meet in the middle. German resistance proved very heavy, however, and the U.S. forces in particular suffered great casualties. After slow and treacherous fighting, the Allies finally captured the port of Naples on October 1, putting all of southern Italy under Allied control.
Monte Cassino and Rome
Even though the Italian government had surrendered, the Germans were determined not to allow Rome to fall to the Allies. As the Allies secured their position in southern Italy, German forces formed a defensive line across the width of Italy, just south of Rome. This barrier, called the Winter Line, stretched from one coast of Italy to the other, crossing the center of the country at the fortified monastery of Monte Cassino.
The heavily defended Winter Line presented a very formidable obstacle to the Allied forces, who assaulted the entrenched Germans over and over again and each time were pushed back. The stalemate persisted for more than six months until Monte Cassino finally fell on May 18, 1944. Rome was liberated shortly thereafter, on June 5. The Germans retreated a short distance and formed a new defensive line in northern Italy, the Gothic Line, which would hold until the spring of 1945.
Events Timeline
January 12, 1941
Britain captures Tobruk, Libya
June 21, 1942
Germans retake Tobruk
October 23
Battle of El-Alamein begins
November 8
Operation Torch; joint U.S.-British landing in French North Africa
November 11
Britain retakes Tobruk
November 25
Allies begin offensive into Tunisia
March 7, 1943
Tunis falls to Allied forces
July 10
Allied invasion of Sicily (Operation Husky) begins
July 22
Palermo falls to Allies
July 24
Mussolini is overthrown in a coup
September 2
Allied invasion of Italy begins
September 8
Italy surrenders to Allies
October 1
Allies capture Naples
May 18, 1944
Monte Cassino falls to Allies
June 5
Rome falls to Allies
Key People
Erwin Rommel
German tank commander whose strategic skill and surprise attacks earned him the nickname “Desert Fox”
Benito Mussolini
Italian dictator whose ill-advised military offensives embroiled Italian and German forces in North Africa
Viktor Emmanuel III
Italy’s king from 1900 to 1946; for the most part only a figurehead, but removed Mussolini from power when the war was lost and Mussolini’s popular support had evaporated
