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French Revolution
In 1789, the French Revolution began. Originally, the French sought to replace their absolute monarchy with a constitutional monarchy and were relatively nonviolent in their attempts to do so. Most Americans sympathized with the fight against tyrannical government. Enlightenment ideas and the success of the American Revolution had also inspired the French, creating further commonalities.
However, in 1792, the French Revolution became far more violent. A new, more radical government declared war on countries with monarchs or emperors, as such governments were contrary to the revolutionary ideas of radical Republicanism. France declared war on Austria, Prussia, and Great Britain (an important U.S. trade partner).
Furthermore, during a time period called the Reign of Terror (1793–1794), a group called the Jacobins took control and began massacring nobles, clergymen, and anyone else whose actions were considered to be contrary to the new radical ideals of the revolution. Americans wavered in their support for the French. Some, such as Thomas Jefferson, argued that the United States must remain loyal due to the two treaties of alliance signed with the French and its significant support of the United States during its own revolution. Others, like Alexander Hamilton, asserted that the government with which the United States had signed the treaties no longer existed, so they were null and void. Hamilton also emphasized the need to preserve trade relations with Great Britain. Eventually, President George Washington issued a Neutrality Proclamation in the hopes of promoting positive diplomatic and trade ties with both countries.
Diplomatic Issues
President Washington’s plans for neutrality did not work out well. British ships had begun seizing American ships that were trading with the French to break the British blockade of French ports. The President sent Secretary of State John Jay to negotiate with the British. The Jay Treaty was a bit of a disappointment: it accepted Britain’s right to stop neutral ships and required the U.S. government to compensate British merchants for pre-American Revolution debts. It did, however, allow the United States to submit claims when its ships were seized illegally and required the British to remove all their troops and Indian agents from the Northwest Territory.
Further complicating matters, the French had attacked about 300 American ships that they assumed to be trading with the British. President John Adams sent three ambassadors to France to negotiate, but the French diplomats demanded a bribe of $250,000 first. (This was actually a pretty common practice in Europe, but it horrified the American delegation, one of whom exclaimed, “No, no, not a sixpence!”) In Adams’s report to Congress, he replaced the names of the French diplomats with X, Y, and Z to hide their identities; thus, the incident is usually referred to as the XYZ Affair.
As a result, Congress authorized the renouncement of the 1778 Treaty of Alliance with France and for the U.S. Navy (which at the time was composed of three ships) to capture armed French ships. This is often called the Quasi-War (quasi means “sort of”) or the undeclared naval war with France. However, before long, Napoleon Bonaparte had assumed leadership of France and negotiated to restore the political and economic relationship with the United States, so the war never really came to fruition.
The First Party System
In 1796, after serving two terms as president, George Washington decided to retire. This started a tradition among future presidents of serving only two terms. In his famous Farewell Address, he called for unity in backing the new government, rather than the formation of political parties and sectionalism. Additionally, he advised the United States against getting involved in permanent foreign alliances.
Yet political parties did form. The first two political parties were the Federalists and the Jeffersonian Republicans. It’s a little confusing that the first political party was called the Federalists, considering that the group that supported the Constitution in the 1780s was called the Federalists as well. Just remember that Federalists versus Anti-Federalists were arguing about the Constitution’s ratification, and that was resolved with the Bill of Rights. Federalists versus Jeffersonian Republicans were debating how the new nation should be administered, and they were the first official political parties.
The Federalist political party was led by Alexander Hamilton and John Adams. The Federalists wanted a powerful federal government, supported by a loose interpretation of the Constitution. They promoted manufacturing, shipping, and trade, and were very pro-tariff and pro-national bank (not to mention pro-British). They were primarily popular in the Northeast.
The Jeffersonian Republican political party (aka Democratic Republicans) was led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. This party wanted a less powerful federal government, focusing on states' rights, and supported a strict interpretation of the Constitution. They promoted agriculture and were anti-tariff and anti-national bank. Most popular in the South and West regions, this party was also pro-French.
