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The Middle Ages were long centuries of stability in the intellectual world, with all scientific and philosophical expression was monitored extensively by, and most often produced from within, the Church. It ruled conclusively on a number of alleged truths about the natural world, which were produced from Biblical study and the widely accepted Aristotelian system. This system defined the laws of physics erroneously in many cases, such as by claiming that the rate of fall of an object was determined by its weight, that matter was constructed out of four possible elements, and that the Earth occupied the center of the universe, with the sun and other planets in revolving around it. In addition, the physicians of the period considered that the human body contained four different kinds of liquid and that illness was caused by the imbalance of these 'humors.'
With the rise of the Renaissance, there as new interest in studying the physical world. In part boosted by the spirit of geographical exploration, the artists and thinkers of the Renaissance wanted to understand and portray reality more accurately, prompting a dramatic rise in scientific exploration. This focus on the investigation of reality naturally led to questioning of the accepted Aristotelian norms, but this sentiment was not shared among the Church or learning institutions of the day, both of whom attempted to drown out the spirit of inquiry and doubt.
The Protestant Reformation, begun by Martin Luther in 1517, radically transformed the theological and political landscape of Europe. Many Europeans began to question the authority of the Church. Indeed, a large faction broke away from the Church and its restriction of intellectual progress. The Church responded with fierce censorship during the Counter-Reformation, which many viewed as foolishly protective of its outdated doctrines. Finally, in this atmosphere, the Scientific Revolution could bloom, and the Aristotelian system fell.
By breaking the centuries-long hold of the Aristotelian system, the Scientific Revolution opened the door to modern science. Much of the work done during the 16th and 17th centuries is still considered the foundation of the major fields of modern science, including physics, chemistry, biology, and astronomy. In physics, the laws of motion and gravity were well understood, setting the stage for many future breakthroughs and inventions. In biology, understanding of the human body to allow the advancement of prevention and treatment for illness. Perhaps the largest advance of the Scientific Revolution occurred in astronomy. Fueled by a better understanding of physics and math, such as Sir Isaac Newton’s calculus, astronomers unlocked the door to the universe.
Following the Scientific Revolution was the Enlightenment, which applied the scientific method developed during the 17th century to human behavior and society during the 18th century. Individualism and rationalism, two treasured values of the Enlightenment, were born of the Scientific Revolution. Increased individualism allowed scientists to come to their own conclusions, rather than deferring to instilled authority confirmed the capabilities and worth of the individual, while the power of human beings to discern truth through reasoning influenced the development of value of rationalism. Such influences, combined with the decreasing reliance on the traditional teachings of the Church, led to a period of philosophical activity unparalleled in modern times.
