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Astronomy in the Renaissance
The Renaissance set the stage for the astronomy of the 16th century by engendering interest in the physical world and its surroundings. By 1510, Leonardo da Vinci had developed many theories on the creation of the universe and the functioning of celestial bodies. In 1528, the French physician Jean Fernal made a calculation of the size of the Earth with only an error of one percent.
Copernicus and Heliocentrism
However, these accomplishments are far overshadowed by those of Nicolas Copernicus. Copernicus, a highly educated Pole, was not a practical astronomer, but a student of past observers and a theoretician. He studied the observed motions of heavenly bodies in relation to the accepted geocentric Aristotelian system, in which the Earth was the center of the solar system and the sun and planets orbited it. Copernicus’s studies led him to conclude that there was something wrong with the geocentric theory. He tested his hypothesis, that the earth was in fact in orbit around the sun, against the records of observation and found that this heliocentric theory was more feasible.
Copernicus’s new scheme retained many of the aspects of the ancient theory. It still assumed that the universe was spherical and finite, ending at the range of the stars so distant that their movements could not be detected, and it still assumed that the motion of all heavenly bodies was perfectly circular. Copernicus finished the description of his heliocentric theory in De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the Revolutions of Celestial Bodies) in 1530, though it went unpublished until 1543, just months before his death.
Tycho Brahe
The next great astronomer, Tycho Brahe of Denmark, differed from Copernicus in that he was, foremost, a practical astronomer who spent his time observing the heavens. For 21 years, from 1576-1597, Tycho worked out of a laboratory provided to him by the King of Denmark, systematically collecting observational data that he used to test and revise astronomical theories. His records were far more extensive than any of his predecessors. In Tycho’s model of the solar system, the Earth was central to the orbits of the moon and sun, and the sun was central to the orbits of the remaining planets.
Needed Advancements in Astronomy
Three basic conditions had to exist in order for the advancement of astronomy toward, and then beyond, the heliocentric theory. First, there had to be better astronomical tools, both physical and mathematical, and more accurate observations using these tools over a long period of time. Second, there had to be improved methods in mathematics in order to interpret this collected data. Third, there had to be progress in the understanding of physics, and particularly motion. These fields of study were evolving slowly during the 16th century, and as interest rose in astronomy at the opening of the 17th century, scientists concentrated much of their effort into improving these fields.
Cultural Effects of Heliocentrism in Copernicus’s Day
Copernicus’s teachings had very little immediate influence on contemporary thought. For nearly a century after the publication of De Revolutionibus, as it is often referred to, scholarly acknowledgement of Copernicus's work remained limited. Religion still occupied a position of utmost importance during the period, and, by its nature, the Church was hostile to revolutionary scientific advances that challenged established doctrine. Even if Copernicus’s works were not banned, their effects were carefully monitored by the Church.
Astronomy Beyond Copernicus and Tycho
Both Tycho Brahe and Copernicus attempted to retain some of the major conventions of the Aristotelian system. However, following Tycho’s era, astronomers began following a new paradigm: they gradually stopped attempting to fit the observed universe into an ideal structure, as laid out by the ancients, and rather tried to observe the direct evidence of the true nature of the heavens and glean from that the actual structure of the universe. Most were prepared to accept that this reality would not necessarily comply with an ideal form.
