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Otto von Bismarck and Austria
While Camillo di Cavour simply directed Italian unification, the Prussian politician Otto von Bismarck pushed German unification through “blood and iron” and skillful understanding of realpolitik. In 1850, Prussia competed with Austria for dominance over a series of small principalities fiercely keen on maintaining their independence and distinctive characteristics, while Prussia proper stretched from modern-day Lithuania to central Germany. Prussia also controlled the German lands around the Rhine River in the west. In between, from Denmark to Switzerland, lay small provinces that Bismarck needed to incorporate under the Prussian crown to create a viable German Empire.
In 1862, Bismarck reorganized the Prussian army and improved training in preparation for war. In 1864, he allied with Austria to fight Denmark over the southern provinces of Schleswig and Holstein, with Prussia receiving Schleswig while Austria administered Holstein. That situation, however, could not stand for long, as Austrian Holstein was now surrounded by Prussian lands. Bismarck provoked a conflict with Austria over an unrelated border dispute and in the subsequent Seven Weeks' War—named for its brevity—Prussia crushed the collapsing Austrian army. The peace settlement transferred Holstein to Prussia and forced Austria to officially remove itself from all German affairs.
The Franco-Prussian War
With Austria out of Bismarck’s way, his next obstacle was the skepticism of the southern provinces. Overwhelmingly Catholic and anti-militaristic, the southern provinces doubted Prussia’s commitment to a united Germany of all provinces, given Prussia's Protestantism and historic militarism. Therefore, Bismarck turned to realpolitik to unite the Germanic provinces by constructing a war against a common enemy. In 1870, Bismarck forged a note from the French ambassador, implying that the ambassador had insulted the Prussian king. After he leaked this letter to both populations, the people of France and Prussia, roused by nationalist sentiment, rose up in favor of war. As Bismarck hoped, the southern provinces rallied to Prussia’s side without any hesitation. In July 1870, France declared war on Prussia and lost within a matter of weeks. Alsace-Lorraine was transferred to Germany in the peace settlement, allowing Prussia to declare the German Empire, or Second Reich, on January 21, 1871.
Results of German Unification
Like Italy, Germany had quite a few serious issues to resolve once unification took place. Regional differences, developing since the first settlement of the Germanic tribes during the Roman Empire, were distinct, and local princes refused to give up substantial power to the central government. The Berlin assembly, therefore, was kept weak, and the resulting Germany seemed merely to be a loose of confederation of autonomous states. One state, Prussia, was absolutely dominant due to its size, power, and military strength. This, combined with Bismarck’s skillful conduct in international and national affairs as chancellor, kept the empire together until 1914.
However, the creation of a unified Germany in central Europe marked one of the greatest revolutions in the history of international relations. Since the establishment of nation-states in Europe, the French Bourbon royal line, dedicated its foreign policy to the weakening of Austrian Hapsburg royal line and the continued disunity of the Germanic provinces. Now that central Europe was united into two major powers—Germany and Italy—Europe was quite a different place. The traditional balance of power that had been in place since the defeat of Napoleon now stood on much shakier ground.
