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The Failure of the Revolutions of 1848
When revolutions erupted throughout Europe in 1848, radicals from Prague to Paris were interested in overthrowing the conservative establishment that had ruled since the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1815. Revolution was in the name of change, but every revolt failed. By the end of the year, a strong president was in charge of France, taking dictatorial powers within three years. In Austria, the Austrian army suppressed each and every urban revolt, reasserting the power and rule of the conservative monarchy.
Nationalism and Unification Take Hold
However, where radical revolution failed, nationalism took hold and succeeded. Italian unification, after centuries of disunity, was finally realized in 1861, with the proclamation of Italy under the Sardinian king. By 1870, with the annexation of Rome and its surrounding provinces, the entire boot of Italy became one united nation-state. Just to the north, the wily Otto von Bismarck used everything from war to harsh diplomacy to finally unite the German provinces under the Prussian crown in 1871. Central Europe, previously divided by more powerful interests to the west and east, was finally consolidated into Germany.
Post-Crimean War Russia and Britian Go on Differing Paths
Meanwhile, Great Britain continued its pattern of gradual reform and experienced an active debate over government intervention in the economy and society. Russia, the most conservative of all the European powers and frightened by its defeat in the Crimean War, finally moved to some reforms in society and government; however, these reforms were halfhearted and did not create lasting change. The period between 1848 and 1871, therefore, can be considered a transitional period when most nations focused on domestic affairs, and where those leaders who took advantage of the connection between domestic and foreign affairs succeeded beyond their expectations.
