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Roman social and economic history is rather difficult to trace, partially due to how long ago it was, and partially due to that period’s historians’ focus on military and political matters. Still, we have some idea of what the Empire was like.
Technology in the Ancient World
The ancient world was composed of naturally occurring substances, such as wood, stone, plant, and animal fibers. Many technologies and crafts had not yet been developed or were in their early stages. Metalworking was present but restricted due to its high costs. Dye, sourced from nature, was used for clothing, pottery, and glass. Masonry was in its early stages as well, with the common brick not being invented until the time of Tiberius. Storage, especially of liquids, was challenging and primitive. Transport, as well, was slow and underdeveloped, whether by land or by sea. Oxen and donkey were used as draft animals, while horses were ridden without tack. Ships were small and slow, with primitive sails and no compasses, limiting both commerce and warfare by sea.
Agriculture in the Ancient World
The ancient world was also restricted geographically, with most inhabitants of the Empire living on the narrow coastal plain surrounding the Mediterranean. Life here was based in agriculture, but good soil was not common and was easily eroded. Crops, first tested in the near East, included cereals, such as wheat and barley, and olives. All of Roman agricultural was done by hand, but it proved successful enough to generate a surplus, leading to the emergence of cities.
Cities in the Ancient World
The ancient city was a natural unit of two components: the urban center and the agricultural hinterland. Due to the expense and difficulty of transport, food needed to be grown nearby. The people in the towns were comparatively wealthy, and owned estates—latifundia—in the hinterland, which were worked by free and semi-free peasants, as well as tenants. Thus, cities rarely outgrew the productivity of the estates unless they had some other means of support, such as trade, mining, or military expansion. The standard size of a large Roman town was about 7,000-20,000 people, but some were larger. Rome, in particular, is estimated to have reached a population of 1 million at the beginning of the Common Era, using tribute and taxes from the Empire’s other regions to expand. On the whole, the ancient world's population was small, perhaps only amounting to 50 million.
To the ancients, a city was defined not by the amount of people, but the quality of life. Cities were centers of effective government and law, as well as cultural centers with temples and deities. They were also the home of the upper class and provided a place to purchase the consumer goods appropriate to these elites. By and large, elites consisted of the owners of estates, equites, veteran centurions, and leaders from the patrician and senatorial families.
The Roman Economy
Cities were not centers of economic production, but of consumption. Their economies were based on the income of rural landlords, as well as taxes. This somewhat parasitic relationship with the countryside extended to the provinces as a whole. In general, Rome was under-productive, but enjoyed peace and economic growth (not development) at the expense of the surrounding areas. While large cities, like Rome, did have a modest amount of artisanal activity, there were only small shops run by families or, very rarely, guilds. There was no self-sustaining motor, economically speaking, and Roman leaders often did not think in economic terms.
In contrast, trade was extensive. The western provinces exported raw materials and imported manufactured goods from the East. Spain exported wine, olive oil, minerals, and hides. Italy imported and exported handicrafts as well as some luxury items with less-developed regions and tribes. What emerged was a Mediterranean trade complex, extending to Egypt and, by Octavian’s time, to India, with ancient cities serving as nodes in the trade system. However, merchants were often looked down upon by the elite. This attitude, as well as the crude state of technology and manufacturing, sustained the underdevelopment of the Roman economy.
