payment page
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absentee ballot
A ballot, usually sent in the mail, that allows those who cannot go to their precinct on election day to vote.
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absolutism
The belief that the government should have all the power and be able to do whatever it wants.
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acquisitive model
A view of bureaucracies that argues agency heads seek to expand the size, budget, and power of their agency.
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actual malice
Knowingly printing falsehoods in order to harm a person’s reputation.
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administrative adjudication
The bureaucratic function of settling disputes by relying on rules and precedents.
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affirm
An action by the Supreme Court to uphold a ruling by a lower court; that ruling is now the legally binding one.
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affirmative action
Measures to give minorities special consideration for hiring, school admission, and so on, designed to overcome past discrimination.
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agency capture
The gaining of control (direct or indirect) over a government regulatory agency by the industry it regulates.
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agency representation
A type of representation in which the representative is seen as an agent, acting on behalf of the district, who is held accountable if he or she does not do as the constituents wish.
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agenda-setting
The power of the media to determine which issues will be discussed and debated.
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amendment
A change to the Constitution.
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American conservatism
The belief that freedom trumps all other political considerations; the government should play a small role in people’s lives.
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American exceptionalism
The view that the United States is different from other countries.
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American liberalism
The belief that the government should promote equality in politics and economics.
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Americans with Disabilities Act
The major law banning discrimination against the disabled, it requires employers to make all reasonable accommodations to disabled workers; it passed in 1990.
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amicus curiae brief
Literally, a “friend of the court” brief. A brief submitted to the court by a group not involved in the case; it presents further arguments for one side in the case.
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anarchism
The belief that all governments are repressive and should be destroyed.
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appellate jurisdiction
The authority to review cases heard by lower courts.
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appointment power
The president’s power to appoint people to key federal offices.
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appropriation
The act of Congress formally specifying the amount of authorized money that an agency can spend.
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Articles of Confederation
America’s first national constitution, which loosely bound the states under a weak national Congress.
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attack journalism
Journalism that aims to undermine political leaders.
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Australian ballot
A ballot printed by the government that allows voting to be secret.
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authoritarian regime
A government that can do whatever it wants, without limits.
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authority
The ability of the government to exercise power without resorting to violence.
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authorization
A formal declaration by a congressional committee that a certain amount of money is available to an agency.
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autocracy
A regime in which the government holds all the power.
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bad-tendency rule
A rule to judge if speech can be limited: If the speech could lead to some sort of “evil,” it can be prohibited.
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Bakke case
This Supreme Court Case decided in 1978 that affirmative action is legal as long as race is not the only factor considered.
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balanced budget
When a government spends exactly as much as it takes in.
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bicameral legislature
A legislature with two houses.
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bilateral
A state acting in cooperation with another state.
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bill
A proposed law or policy.
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bill of attainder
A bill passed by the legislature that declares a person guilty of a crime.
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Bill of Rights
The first ten amendments to the Constitution, which safeguard some specific rights of the American people and the states.
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Bipartisan Campaign Finance Reform Act
A law passed in 2002 that banned soft money, put limits on issue advertising, and increased the amount people can donate to candidates; also called the McCain-Feingold bill.
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bipolar system
An international system characterized by two superpowers that roughly balance each other.
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blanket primary
A primary in which voters can choose candidates from more than one party; declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.
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block grant
A grant-in-aid with few restrictions or rules about how it can be spent.
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blog
A weblog on the Internet; the thoughts and opinions of a person or group posted online.
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brief
A document submitted to a court that presents one side’s argument in a case.
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broadcast media
Media that is distributed over the airwaves.
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Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas
Supreme Court case that ended segregation and declared “separate but equal” to be unconstitutional.
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bundling
The practice of lumping campaign donations from several donors together.
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bureaucracy
An administrative way of organizing large numbers of people to work together; usually relies on specialization, hierarchy, and standard operating procedure.
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buying power
One’s ability to purchase things; it is undermined by inflation.
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cabinet
A group, composed of the heads of federal departments and key agencies, that advises the president.
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caesaropapism
The belief that the powers of church and state should be united in one person.
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candidate-centered politics
Campaigns and politics that focus on the candidates, not party labels.
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case law
The collection of court decisions that shape law.
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casework
Work done by a member of Congress or his or her staff on behalf of constituents.
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categorical grants
Money given for a specific purpose that comes with restrictions concerning how the money should be spent. There are two types of categorical grants: project grants and formula grants.
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caucus
A gathering of political leaders to make decisions, such as which candidate to nominate for an office; set policy; and plot strategy.
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census
Counting the population to determine representation in the House of Representatives; the constitution mandates one every ten years.
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central bank
The institution with the power to implement monetary policy.
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centralization
the process by which law- and policymaking becomes centrally located.
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centrally planned economy
An economy where all decisions are made by the government.
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charter
A document issued by state government granting certain powers and responsibilities to a local government.
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checks and balances
The ability of different branches of government to stop each other from acting; designed to prevent one branch from gaining too much power.
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chief of state
The ceremonial head of government; in the United States, the president serves as chief of state.
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citizen
A legal member of a political unit.
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civic education
Education geared toward training the young to be good citizens.
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civil liberties
Individual freedoms that the government cannot take away, including free speech, freedom of religion, and the rights of the accused.
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civil rights
The rights of equality under the law.
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Civil Rights Act of 1964
The major civil rights legislation in the modern era, the Civil Rights Act banned discrimination and segregation in public accommodations.
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Civil Rights Cases
Supreme Court decision in 1883 that said the Fourteenth Amendment only made discrimination by government illegal; private citizens could do as they pleased.
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civil service
Government employees hired and promoted based on merit, not political connections.
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Civil Service Commission
The first federal personnel agency.
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Civil Service Reform Act of 1883
Law that established the federal civil service; also known as the Pendleton Act.
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Civil Service Reform Act of 1978
Law that updated and reformed the civil service.
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civil society
The network of community relationships that builds social capital.
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civil war
A war fought within a single country between or among different groups of citizens who want to control the government and do not recognize another group’s right to rule.
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classical conservatism
A view that arose in opposition to classical liberalism; it claimed that tradition was very valuable, human reason limited, and stability essential.
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classical liberalism
A view that arose in the early modern era in Europe; it argues for the value of the individual, the necessity for freedom, the importance of rationalism, and the value of the free market.
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clear-and-present danger
A limit on free speech stipulating that speech that constitutes a “clear and present danger” can be banned.
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closed primary
A primary in which the voter must belong to the party in which he or she participates.
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closed rule
A rule on a bill, issued by the House Rules Committee, which limits or bans amendments during floor debate.
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cloture
A motion to end debate in the Senate, it must be approved by sixty votes.
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codetermination
A policy used in some states with strong social democratic parties that forces large corporations to have substantial representation from the workers on the board of directors
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command economy
An economy where all decisions are made by the government.
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commerce clause
A clause in Article I, Section 8, of the U.S. Constitution that grants Congress the power to regulate interstate commerce.
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common-carrier role
The media’s role as an intermediary between the people and the government.
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common law
A system of law, originally from England, in which previous decisions guide judges in interpreting the law.
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communism
An extreme form of socialism that advocates violent revolution to create a socialist state.
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comparative politics
An academic discipline that compares states in order to understand how they work.
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concurrent powers
Powers exercised simultaneously by the states and the federal government.
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concurring opinion
An opinion issued by a judge who votes with the winning side but disagrees with the majority or plurality opinion.
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confederacy
A loose relationship among a number of smaller political units.
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confederate system
A system of government with a very weak central government and strong states.
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conformism
A tendency for people to act the same way, watch the same television programs, read the same books, and so on.
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constituency
The people in a district represented by a legislator.
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constitution
A set of rules that govern how power will be distributed and used legitimately in a state.
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constitutional democracy
A type of government characterized by limitations on government power spelled out in a constitution.
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constitutional government
A regime in which the use of power is limited by law.
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constitutional powers
Powers of the president granted explicitly by the Constitution.
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continuing resolution
A measure passed by Congress that temporarily funds an agency while Congress completes its budget.
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conventional participation
Political participation in activities deemed appropriate by most; includes voting, donating to a campaign, and writing letters to officeholders.
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convention delegate
A party member or official who goes to the national convention to vote for the party’s presidential nominee and to ratify the party’s platform.
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cooperative federalism
A term used to describe federalism for most of the twentieth century (and into the twenty-first), where the federal government and the states work closely together and are intertwined; also known as marble-cake federalism.
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corrupt practices acts
A series of laws in the early twentieth century that were the first attempts to regulate campaign finance.
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credentials committee
Party officials who decide which delegates may participate in the national convention.
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critical election
An election that marks the advent of a realignment.
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dealignment
The loosening of party ties as more voters see themselves as independents.
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decision
A document issued by the court stating who wins the case.
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Declaration of Independence
The document written by Thomas Jefferson in 1776 that broke the colonies away from British rule.
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de facto segregation
Segregation that exists due to economic and residential patterns, not because of law.
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defamation of character
Unfairly hurting a person’s reputation.
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deficit spending
When a government intentionally spends more money than it takes in.
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de jure segregation
Segregation imposed by law.
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delegated powers
Powers granted by Congress to help the president fulfill his duties.
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demand-side economics
An approach to economic policy that stresses stimulation of demand by putting more money in the hands of consumers.
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democracy
Rule by the people.
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democratic socialism
A peaceful form of socialism that works within democratic governments to attain socialism gradually.
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demosclerosis
The inability of the U.S. government to get anything significant done because interest groups block all major change.
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denial of power
Declaring that a certain person or group does not have a particular power.
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depression
A severe economic downturn that lasts a long time; more serious than a recession.
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deregulation
The repeal or reduction of regulations in order to boost efficiency, increase competitiveness, and benefit consumers.
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deterrence
Threatening to use military force to prevent another state from taking a particular course of action.
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devolution
The process of the national government giving responsibilities and powers to state, local, or regional governments.
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dictatorship
An absolute government in which one person holds all the power and uses it for his or her own self-interest.
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diplomacy
The act of negotiating and dealing with other nations in the world, trying to achieve goals without force.
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direct democracy
A government in which the people come together to vote on all important issues.
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discharge petition
A measure in the House that forces a bill out of a committee for consideration by the whole House.
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dissenting opinion
A court opinion written by the losing side that explains why it disagrees with the decision.
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diversity
A mix of different cultural and religious traditions and values.
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divided government
A situation in which one party controls the presidency, while the other controls at least one house of Congress.
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divine right theory of kingship
The view that the monarch is chosen by God to rule with absolute power over a country.
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division of labor
The practice of dividing a job into smaller component parts and assigning one person or group to do each part.
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dual federalism
A term to describe federalism through most of the nineteenth century, where the federal and state governments each had their own issue areas, which rarely overlapped; also known as layer-cake federalism.
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due process clause
Part of the Fourteenth Amendment, which declares that no person can be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law.
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duopoly
A term to describe the overwhelming power of the two major parties in American politics.
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Earned Income Tax Credit
A federal welfare program that refunds all or part of a poor family’s social security tax.
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economic aid
Assistance to other countries designed to help the recipient’s economy.
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economic group
An interest group that seeks material benefits for its members.
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economic growth
The expansion of the economy, leading to the creation of more jobs and more wealth.
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effective tax rate
The actual percentage of one’s income that one pays in taxes, after deductions and tax credits.
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elastic clause
Clause in Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution that says the Congress has the power to do anything that is necessary and proper in order to carry out its explicit powers; also called the necessary and proper clause.
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elector
A member of the Electoral College.
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Electoral College
The body that elects the president of the United States; composed of electors from each state equal to that state’s representation in Congress; a candidate must get a majority of electoral votes to win.
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elitism/elite theory
The view that a small capable group should rule over the rest.
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emergency powers
Inherent powers exercised by the president to deal with emergencies.
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empire
A state that governs more than one national group, usually as a result of conquest.
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enabling legislation
A law passed by Congress that lays out the general purposes and powers of an agency but grants the agency the power to determine the details of how it implements policy.
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entitlement program
A program under which the federal government is obligated to pay a specified benefit to people who meet certain requirements.
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enumerated powers
The powers specifically given to Congress in Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution.
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environmental impact statement
A statement that must be prepared by the federal government prior to acting that describes how the environment will be affected.
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environmentalism
The belief that humans have an obligation to protect the world from the excesses of human habitation, including pollution and the destruction of wilderness.
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equality of opportunity
When all people are given the same chances to compete and achieve so that those with talent and diligence will succeed, whereas others will not.
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equality of outcome
When all people achieve the same result, regardless of talent or effort.
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equal protection clause
Part of the Fourteenth Amendment, which states that states must give all citizens the equal protection of the law.
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Equal Rights Amendment
A proposed amendment that would end gender discrimination; it failed to be ratified.
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equal time rule
A broadcast media regulation that requires media outlets to give equal amounts of time to opposing candidates in an election.
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equity
When all parties to a transaction are treated fairly.
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establishment clause
A part of the First Amendment that forbids government establishment of religion.
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excess demand
An economic situation in which the demand for something exceeds the supply.
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exclusionary rule
A legal rule that excludes from trial evidence obtained in an illegal search.
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executive leadership
The view that the president should have strong influence over the bureaucracy.
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Executive Office of the President
A set of agencies that work closely with the president to help him perform his job.
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executive order
An order issued by the president that has the effect of law.
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executive privilege
The right of officials of the executive branch to refuse to disclose some information to other branches of government or to the public.
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ex post facto law
A law that declares something illegal after it has been done.
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expressed powers
The specific powers given to Congress or the president by the Constitution; also called the enumerated powers.
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fairness doctrine
A broadcast media regulation that requires a broadcaster that airs a controversial program to also provide airtime to people with an opposing view.
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faithless elector
An elector who votes for someone other than the candidate who won the most votes in the state.
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fascism
Ideology from Italy that stresses national unity, a strong expansionist military, and absolute rule by one party.
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federal budget
A document detailing how the federal government will spend money during a fiscal year.
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Federal Communications Commission
The federal agency that regulates the broadcast media.
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Federal Election Campaign Act
A law, passed in 1971, that limited expenditures on media advertising and required disclosure of donations above $100; made more stringent following the Watergate scandal.
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Federal Election Commission
The independent agency established in 1974 to enforce campaign finance laws.
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federalism
A system of government in which power is shared by national and state governments.
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Federal Register
A federal publication that lists all executive orders.
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federal reserve bank
The name of the central bank of the United States; often called the Fed.
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federal system
A system of government where power is shared between the central government and state and local governments.
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feminism
The belief that women are equal to men and should be treated equally by the law.
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filibuster
A Senate tactic; a senator in the minority on a bill holds the floor (in effect shutting down the Senate) until the majority backs down and kills the bill.
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First Continental Congress
A gathering of representatives from all thirteen colonies in 1774; it called for a total boycott of British goods in protest against taxes.
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fiscal federalism
The practice of states spending federal money to help administer national programs.
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fiscal policy
How the government influences the economy through taxing, borrowing, and spending.
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fiscal year
A twelve-month period (which does not coincide with the calendar year) used for accounting and budget purposes by the federal government.
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527 groups
A political organization, not affiliated with a party, that can raise and spend soft money; named after a section of the Internal Revenue Code.
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flat taxes
A taxation system in which everyone is charged the same rate, regardless of income.
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food stamps
Coupons issued by the government that can be used to purchase food.
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foreign policy
A state’s international goals and its strategies to achieve those goals.
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formalized rules
Another term for standard operating procedure.
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formula grants
Grants in which a formula is used to determine how much money each state receives.
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framers
The men who wrote the Constitution.
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franking
The ability of members of Congress to mail informational literature to constituents free of charge.
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free exercise clause
The part of the First Amendment that forbids the government from interfering in the free exercise of religion.
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free rider
A person who benefits from an interest group’s efforts without actually contributing to those efforts.
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front-loading
Moving primaries up in the campaign calendar so that many primaries are held early in the campaign.
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front-runner
The candidate perceived to be in the lead in an election campaign.
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full faith and credit clause
A clause in Article IV of the Constitution that declares that state governments must give full faith and credit to other state governments’ decisions.
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fundamentalism
The belief that a religious document is infallible and literally true.
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gag order
An order by a court to block people from talking or writing about a trial.
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gender discrimination
Treating people differently and unequally because of gender.
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general election
An election contest between all party nominees and independent candidates; the winner becomes a member of Congress.
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general jurisdiction
A court’s power to hear cases, which is mostly unrestricted.
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gerrymandering
The term used to describe the process by which the party that controls the state government uses redistricting to its own political advantage.
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Gibbons v. Ogden
An 1824 Supreme Court case that gave the federal government extensive powers through the commerce clause.
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Gideon v. Wainwright
Supreme Court case of 1963 that ordered governments to provide an attorney to criminal defendants who cannot afford one.
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globalization
The trend toward the breakdown of state borders and the rise of international and global organizations and governments.
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government
The organization of power within a country.
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Government Accountability Office
Congress’s main investigative agency, the GAO investigates operations of government agencies as part of congressional oversight.
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government bond
A promissory note issued by the government to pay back the purchase price plus interest.
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government corporation
A federal agency that operates like a corporation (following business practices and charging for services) but receives some federal funding.
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grandfather clause
A voting law that stated that a person could vote if his grandfather was eligible to vote prior to 1867; designed to keep blacks from voting.
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grant-in-aid
A general term to describe federal aid given to the states for a particular matter.
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grant of power
Declaring that a certain person or group has a specific power.
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grassroots activism
Efforts to influence the government by mobilizing large numbers of people.
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Great Compromise
The compromise plan on representation in the constitutional convention; it created a bicameral legislature with representation determined by population in one house and equality in the other; also known as the Connecticut Compromise.
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gross domestic product
The total value of all economic transactions within a state.
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guerrilla war
A war in which one or both combatants use small, lightly armed militia units rather than professional, organized armies; guerrilla fighters usually seek to topple their government, often enjoying the support of the people.
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gun control
Policies that aim at regulating and reducing the use of firearms.
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Hatch Act
A law passed in 1939 that restricts the participation of federal civil servants in political campaigns.
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hierarchy
An arrangement of power with a small number of people at the top issuing orders through a chain of command to lower-level workers; each person is responsible to someone above him or her.
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home rule
The granting of significant autonomy to local governments by state governments.
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home style
The way a member of Congress behaves in his or her district.
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honeymoon period
The first few months of an administration in which the public, members of Congress, and the media tend to give the president their goodwill.
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horizontal federalism
How state governments relate to one another.
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hyperpluralism
The idea that there are too many interest groups competing for benefits.
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idealism
The view that states should act in the global arena to promote moral causes and use ethical means to achieve them.
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ideology
A set of beliefs a person holds that shape the way he or she behaves and sees the world.
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illegal participation
Political activity that includes illegal actions, such as sabotage or assassination.
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impeachment
The power of the House of Representatives to charge an officeholder with crimes; the Senate then holds a trial to determine if the officeholder should be expelled from office.
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implementation
The act of putting laws into practice.
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implied powers
Powers given to the national government by the necessary and proper clause.
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income distribution
The way income is distributed among the population.
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income transfer
A government action that takes money from one part of the citizenry and gives it to another part; usually the transfer goes from the well-off to the poor.
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incorporation
The practice of federal courts forcing state governments to abide by the Bill of Rights.
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incrementalism
The tendency of policy in the United States to change gradually, in small ways, rather than dramatically.
-
independent
A person who does not feel affiliation for any party.
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independent executive agency
A federal agency that is not part of any department; its leader reports directly to the president.
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independent regulatory agency
A federal agency charged with regulating some part of the economy; in theory, such agencies are independent of Congress and the president.
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individualism
The idea that all people are different and should be able to make their own choices.
-
inflation
The increase of prices.
-
informational benefits
The educational benefits people derive from belonging to an interest group and learning more about the issues they care about.
-
inherent powers
The powers inherent to the national government because the United States is a sovereign nation.
-
in-kind subsidies
Government aid to poor people that is not given as cash but in forms such as food stamps and rent vouchers.
-
inside game
Interest groups’ efforts to influence government by direct and close contact with government officials; also known as lobbying.
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interest group
An organization of people who share a common interest and work together to protect and promote that interest by influencing the government.
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international agreement
An understanding between states to restrict their behavior and set up rules governing international affairs.
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internationalism
The view that the United States should play an active role in world affairs.
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international law
A set of agreements, traditions, and norms built up over time that restricts what states can do; not always binding.
-
international organization
An institution set up by agreements between nations, such as the United Nations and the World Trade Organization.
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international system
The basic structures that affect how states relate to one another, including rules and traditions.
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Internet media
Media that is distributed online.
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interpretive reporting
Reporting that states the facts along with analysis and interpretation.
-
intervention
When a state sends military forces to help a country that is already at war.
-
iron triangle
An alliance of groups with an interest in a policy area: bureaucrats from the relevant agency, legislators from appropriate committees, and interest groups affected by the issue.
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isolationism
The view that the United States should largely ignore the rest of the world.
-
issue advertising
Advertising, paid for by outside groups, that can criticize or praise a candidate but not explicitly say “vote for X” or “vote against X.”
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issue network
A collection of actors who agree on a policy and work together to shape policy.
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Jim Crow laws
Laws passed by southern states that imposed inequality and segregation on blacks.
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Joint Chiefs of Staff
A group that helps the president make strategy decisions and evaluates the needs and capabilities of the military.
-
judicial activism
A judicial philosophy that argues courts must take an active positive role to remedy wrongs in the country.
-
judicial implementation
The process of enforcing a court’s ruling.
-
judicial philosophy
A set of ideas that shape how a judge or lawyer interprets the law and the Constitution.
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judicial restraint
A judicial philosophy that believes the court’s responsibility is to interpret the law, not set policy.
-
judicial review
The power of the courts to declare laws and presidential actions unconstitutional.
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jurisdiction
A court’s power to hear cases of a particular type.
-
justiciable question
A matter that the courts can review.
-
just-war theory
A theory of ethics that defines when war is morally permissible and what means of warfare are justified.
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Keynesian economics
A demand-side economic policy, first presented by John Maynard Keynes after World War I, that encouraged deficit spending by governments during economic recessions in order to provide jobs and boost income.
-
kitchen cabinet
An informal name for the president’s closest advisers.
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Kyoto Protocol
An international treaty aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
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laissez-faire capitalism
The economic philosophy that the government should not interfere with the economy.
-
lawmaking
The power to make rules that are binding on all people in a society.
-
layer-cake federalism
A term used to describe federalism through most of the nineteenth century, in which the federal and state governments each had their own issue areas, that rarely overlapped; also known as dual federalism.
-
legislative agenda
A series of laws a person wishes to pass.
-
legitimacy
Acceptance by citizens of the government.
-
Lemon test
A three-part test to determine if the establishment clause has been violated; named for the 1971 case Lemon v. Kurtzman.
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libel
Printing false statements that defame a person’s character.
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liberalism
A theory of international relations that deemphasizes the importance of military power in favor of economic power, trade, and international institutions.
-
libertarianism
The belief that government should be small and most decisions left up to the individual.
-
liberty
The freedom to do what one chooses as long as one does not harm or limit the freedom of other people.
-
limited government
A government that places few restrictions on its citizens’ choices and actions, and in which the government is limited in what it can do.
-
limited jurisdiction
A court’s power to hear only certain kinds of cases.
-
limited war
A war fought primarily between professional armies to achieve specific political objectives without causing widespread destruction.
-
line-item veto
A special type of veto that the president can use to strike the specific parts of the bill he or she dislikes without rejecting the entire bill.
-
line organization
In the government bureaucracy, an agency whose head reports directly to the president.
-
literacy test
Historically, a test that must be passed before a person can vote; designed to prevent blacks from voting.
-
lobbying
Attempting to persuade government officials through direct contact via persuasion and the provision of material benefits; also known as the inside game.
-
logrolling
A practice in Congress where two or more members agree to support each other’s bills.
-
loophole
A part of a tax code that allows individuals or businesses to reduce their tax burden.
-
loose constructionism
A judicial philosophy that believes the Constitution should be interpreted in an open way, not limited to things explicitly stated.
-
machine
A very strong party organization that turns favors and patronage into votes.
-
Madisonian Model
A structure of government proposed by James Madison that avoided tyranny by separating power among different branches and building checks and balances into the Constitution.
-
majority leader
(1) In the House, the second-ranking member of the majority party; (2) in the Senate, the highest-ranking member of the majority party.
-
majority opinion
A court opinion that reflects the reasoning of the majority of justices.
-
majority party
In a legislative body, the party with more than half of the seats.
-
majority rule
The idea that the government should act in accordance with the will of the majority of people.
-
malapportionment
An apportionment of seats in Congress that is unfair due to population shifts.
-
mandate
When the federal government requires states to do certain things.
-
mandatory retirement
An employment policy that states that when an employee reaches a certain age, he or she must retire.
-
marble-cake federalism
A term used to describe federalism for most of the twentieth century (and into the twenty-first), where the federal government and the states work closely together and are intertwined; also known as cooperative federalism.
-
markup
When a Congressional committee revises a bill in session.
-
material incentive
The lure of a concrete benefit, usually money, that attracts people to join a group.
-
McCain-Feingold bill
The popular informal name for the Bipartisan Campaign Finance Reform Act of 2002; it is named after its sponsors, Republican John McCain and Democrat Russell Feingold.
-
McCulloch v. Maryland
A Supreme Court case that granted the federal government extensive power to carry out its enumerated powers.
-
means-testing
Basing benefits from a policy on a person’s wealth so that poor people get more benefits than rich people.
-
media
Information and the organizations that distribute that information to the public.
-
media consolidation
The trend toward a few large corporations owning most of the media outlets in the country.
-
merit system
The practice of hiring and promoting people based on skill.
-
Merit System Protection Board
A board that investigates charges of wrongdoing in the federal civil service.
-
midterm election
A congressional election that does not coincide with a presidential election.
-
military aid
Assistance to other countries designed to strengthen the recipient’s military.
-
military-industrial complex
The alliance of defense contractors, the military, and some members of Congress that promotes a large defense budget in order to profit themselves.
-
minority leader
In both the House and Senate, the leader of the minority party.
-
minority party
In a legislative body, the party with fewer than half of the seats.
-
Miranda v. Arizona
A 1966 case in which the Supreme Court ruled that police must inform suspects of their rights when arrested.
-
mixed economy
An economy that includes elements of the free market and central planning.
-
monarchy
A regime in which all power is held by a single person.
-
monetary policy
An economic policy that seeks to control the supply of money in the economy.
-
monopolistic model
A view of the bureaucracy that says bureaucracies have no incentive to reform or improve performance because they face no competition.
-
Monroe Doctrine
An American policy, set by President James Monroe in 1823, that claims America’s right to intervene in the affairs of Western Hemisphere nations.
-
multiculturalism
The idea that Americans should learn about and respect the many cultural heritages of the people of the United States.
-
multilateralism
The idea that nations should act together to solve problems.
-
multinational corporation
A business that operates in more than one country.
-
multiple-member district
A legislative district that sends more than one person to the legislature.
-
multipolar system
An international system with more than two major powers.
-
nation
A large group of people who are linked by a similar culture, language, and history.
-
national convention
A convention held by a political party every four years to nominate candidates for president and vice president and to ratify the party platform.
-
national debt
Money owed by a government.
-
national interest
Things that will benefit and protect a state.
-
nationalism
A belief in the goodness of one’s nation and a desire to help make the nation stronger and better.
-
National Security Council
A part of the White House Staff that advises the president on security policy.
-
nation-building
The task of creating a national identity through promotion of common culture, language, and history.
-
nation-state
A state that rules over a single nation.
-
Nazism
Political ideology from Germany that stressed the superiority of the German race, authoritarian rule by one party, military expansion, and a longing for a mythical past.
-
necessary and proper clause
A clause at the end of Article I, Section 8, of the U.S. Constitution that grants Congress the power to do whatever is necessary and proper to carry out its duties; also known as the elastic clause.
-
necessary evil
Something that is believed to be needed but is not good in and of itself; many Americans see government as a necessary evil.
-
negotiated rule-making
A federal rule-making process that includes those affected by the rules.
-
neoconservatism
A recent development in American conservatism that believes the power of the state should be used to promote conservative goals.
-
New Deal coalition
The supporters of Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal; the coalition included labor unions, Catholics, southern whites, and African Americans; helped the Democrats dominate politics from the 1930s until the 1960s.
-
new federalism
An American movement, starting in the 1970s, to return power to state and local governments, thereby decreasing the amount of power held by the federal government.
-
New Jersey Plan
A plan at the constitutional convention that gave each state equal representation in the legislature.
-
nihilism
The belief that in order to remake society, one must first destroy the current society.
-
Nineteenth Amendment
Passed in 1920, it gave women the right to vote.
-
No Child Left Behind Act
A law passed in 2001 that expanded federal funding to schools but required increased testing and accountability.
-
noneconomic group
An interest group that works on noneconomic issues; also called a citizens’ group.
-
nongovernmental actor
A participant in the international arena that is not part of a government; such participants include nongovernmental organizations, multinational corporations, and international organizations.
-
nongovernmental organization
A political actor that is not affiliated with a particular government. Many NGOs are nonprofit institutions run by private citizens, such as the Red Cross, Doctors Without Borders, and the Catholic Church.
-
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
An international treaty, signed in 1968, that aims to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons.
-
objective reporting
Reporting only the facts with no opinion or bias.
-
office-block ballot
A ballot that groups candidates by office: All candidates for an office are listed together; also called the Massachusetts ballot.
-
Office of Personnel Management
The central federal personnel office, created in 1978.
-
oligarchy
Rule by the wealthy few.
-
ombudsperson
A person who investigates complaints against government agencies or employees.
-
open primary
A primary in which a person can participate in any party’s primary as long as he or she participates in only one party’s primary.
-
open rule
A rule on a bill, issued by the House Rules Committee, allowing amendments during floor debate.
-
opinion
A document issued by a court explaining the reasons for its decision.
-
opinion leader
A person whose opinion can shape the opinions of many others.
-
original intent
A judicial philosophy that states that judges should seek to interpret the law and the constitution in line with the intent of the founders.
-
original jurisdiction
The authority to be the first court to hear a case.
-
outside game
A term used to describe grassroots activism and other means to influence elections and policymaking.
-
overregulation
An excess of regulation that hurts efficiency.
-
oversight
Congress’s power to make sure laws are being properly enforced.
-
pack journalism
The idea that journalists frequently copy and imitate each other rather than doing independent reporting.
-
paradox of participation
When many people vote because they wish to make a difference, but the actual chances of making a difference are infinitesimally small.
-
pardon
A release from punishment for criminal conviction; the president has the power to pardon.
-
parliamentary democracy
A regime in which the legislature chooses the executive branch.
-
partisan journalism
Journalism that advances the viewpoint of a political party.
-
party activist
A person who is deeply involved with a party; usually more ideologically extreme than an average party voter.
-
party-centered politics
Campaigns and politics that focus on party labels and platforms.
-
party-column ballot
A ballot that groups candidates by party; also called the Indiana ballot.
-
party identification
Feeling connected to a political party.
-
party in government
The role and function of parties in government, particularly in Congress.
-
party in the electorate
Party identification among voters.
-
party organization
The formal structure and leadership of a political party.
-
party platform
The collection of issue positions endorsed by a political party.
-
party reform
Measures aimed at opening up party leadership adopted by the major parties following the 1968 election.
-
patronage
Government jobs and contracts given out to political allies in exchange for support.
-
Pendleton Act
Another name for the Civil Service Reform Act of 1883.
-
per curiam
An unsigned decision issued by an appellate court; it reaffirms the lower court’s ruling.
-
pigeonholing
The ability of a committee to kill a bill by setting it aside and not acting on it.
-
Plessy v. Ferguson
The Supreme Court case of 1896 that upheld a Louisiana law segregating passengers on trains; it created the separate but equal doctrine.
-
pluralism
The view that society contains numerous centers of power and many people participate in making decisions for society.
-
plurality
More votes than any other candidate but not a majority.
-
plurality opinion
An opinion written by the majority of justices on the winning side.
-
pocket veto
An unusual type of presidential veto: When the president neither signs nor vetoes a bill, after ten days the bill dies if Congress is not in session.
-
political action committee
An organization, usually allied with an interest group, that can donate money to political campaigns.
-
political appointees
Federal bureaucrats appointed by the president, often to reward loyalty.
-
political culture
The set of beliefs, values, shared myths, and notions of a good polity that a group of people hold.
-
political economy
The study of how politics and economics interact.
-
political efficacy
The belief that the government listens to normal people and that participation can make a difference in government.
-
political equality
Treating everyone the same way in the realm of politics.
-
political participation
Engaging in actions to achieve political goals.
-
political party
An alliance of like-minded people who work together to win elections and control of the government.
-
political science
The systematic, rigorous study of politics.
-
political socialization
The process by which political culture is passed on to the young.
-
politics
The process by which government decisions are made.
-
polling
Assessing public opinion by asking people what they think and feel.
-
pollster
A person who conducts polls.
-
poll tax
A fee for voting, designed to keep blacks and other poor people from voting.
-
popular sovereignty
A regime in which the government must respond to the wishes of the people.
-
Populists
A political movement in the late nineteenth century that fought on behalf of the poor workers and farmers; fused with the Democratic Party in 1896.
-
pork
Money spent by Congress for local projects that are not strictly necessary and are designed to funnel money into a district.
-
poverty line
The federal standard for poverty: Anyone below a certain income level is considered poor.
-
power
The ability to get others to do what you want.
-
power of the purse
The ability of Congress to spend money; all federal expenditures must be authorized by Congress.
-
precedent
A court ruling bearing on subsequent court cases.
-
preemption
The practice of the national government overriding state and local laws in the name of the national interest.
-
Presidential Commission
A body that advises the president on some problem, making recommendations; some are temporary, whereas others are permanent.
-
presidential democracy
A regime in which the president and the legislators must be entirely separate.
-
president pro tempore
In the vice president’s absence, the presiding officer of the Senate.
-
primary election
An election within a party to choose the party’s nominee for the office.
-
print media
Media distributed via printed materials.
-
prior restraint
Stopping free expression before it happens.
-
private bill
A bill that offers benefit or relief to a single person, named in the bill.
-
private good
A good that benefits only some people, such as members of a group.
-
privatization
The practice of private companies providing government services.
-
privileges and immunities clause
Part of the Fourteenth Amendment, which forbids state governments from taking away any of the privileges and immunities of American citizenship.
-
probability sample
A sampling technique in which each member of the population has a known chance of being chosen for the sample.
-
professional legislature
A state legislature that meets in session for long periods, pays its members well, and hires large support staffs for legislators.
-
progressive taxes
A taxation system in which the rich must pay a higher percentage of their income than the poor.
-
prohibited powers
The powers specifically denied to the national government by the Constitution.
-
project grants
Categorical grant programs in which states submit proposals for projects to the federal government and the national government chooses which to fund on a competitive basis.
-
proportional representation
An electoral system in which each party gets a number of seats in the legislature proportionate to its percentage of the vote.
-
prospective voting
Making a vote choice by looking to the future: Voters choose the candidate(s) they believe will help the country the most in the next few years.
-
proxy war
A war fought by third parties rather than by the enemy states themselves.
-
public administration
The task of running the government, and providing services through policy implementation.
-
public assistance
Another term for welfare.
-
public education
Informing the public about key issues and about what Congress is doing about those issues.
-
public good
A good that benefits everyone, not just some; also called collective good.
-
public opinion
The basic attitudes and opinions of the general public.
-
public policy
Any rule, plan, or action pertaining to issues of domestic national importance.
-
public representative role
The role of the media to act as a representative of the public, holding government officials accountable to the people.
-
purposive incentive
The lure of a desire to promote a cause.
-
rally ’round the flag effect
A significant boost in presidential popularity when a foreign crisis arises.
-
random selection
A sampling technique to ensure that each person in the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample.
-
ranking member
The senior committee member from the minority party.
-
ratings game
The practice of organizations rating members of Congress based on votes that matter to the organizations and their members.
-
rational choice theory
An approach that assumes people act rationally in their self-interest, seeking to maximize value.
-
rationalism
The belief that human reason can find solutions to many of our problems.
-
realignment
A dramatic shift in the balance of the two parties that changes the key issues dividing the parties.
-
realism
A theory of international relations that stresses the importance of power (particularly military power) and claims that states act in their national interest.
-
reapportionment
The process of reallocating representation in the House of Representatives after a census; some states will gain seats, while other will lose them.
-
recession
An economic downturn; milder than a depression.
-
redistributive policy
A government action that takes money from one part of the citizenry and gives it to another part; usually the transfer goes from the well-off to the poor; also known as income transfer.
-
redistricting
Redrawing district boundaries after a state loses or gains seats in the House of Representatives.
-
regime
A word used to describe a particular government.
-
regressive taxes
A taxation system that costs the poor a larger portion of their income than it does the rich because the amount of tax gets smaller as the amount to which the tax is applied gets larger.
-
regulated federalism
The practice of the national government imposing standards and regulations on state governments.
-
regulatory policy
Government policies that limit what businesses can do; examples include minimum wages, workplace safety measures, and careful monitoring of stock sales.
-
remand
Sending a case back to a lower court for a new trial or proceeding.
-
rent voucher
A voucher issued by the government that can be used to pay all or part of a poor person’s rent.
-
representative democracy
A system of government in which the people elect officials to represent their interests in the government.
-
representative sample
A sample that resembles the population as a whole.
-
reprieve
A formal postponement of the execution of a criminal sentence; the president has the power to grant reprieves.
-
republic
A regime that runs by representative democracy.
-
reregulation
Significantly changing government regulations on an industry.
-
reserved powers
The powers reserved to the states and the people in the Tenth Amendment.
-
responsible party
A party that is strong enough to carry out a specific platform if elected to office.
-
retention election
A state election, held in states using the merit plan for selecting judges, in which voters are asked whether a judge should keep his or her job.
-
retrospective voting
Making a vote choice by looking to the past: Voters support incumbents if they feel that the country has done well over the past few years.
-
revenue agency
A government agency that raises money by collecting taxes or fees.
-
revenue sharing
The practice of the federal government giving money to the states with no strings attached; started by the Nixon Administration and ended by the Reagan Administration.
-
reverse
When a court overturns a lower court’s ruling, declaring it void.
-
reverse discrimination
Discrimination against majority-status people due to affirmative action policies.
-
revolution
A major event causing a fundamental change in a state.
-
rider
An amendment attached to a bill that has nothing to do with the bill itself.
-
right of rebuttal
A media regulation that requires broadcasters to give people an opportunity to reply to criticisms aired on the outlet.
-
rights of the minority
Rights held by the minority that must be respected by the majority.
-
Roe v. Wade
A 1973 Supreme Court case that legalized abortion during the first trimester.
-
rogue state
A state that does not follow international law or unspoken rules of the global arena.
-
roll-call vote
Occurs when each member’s vote is recorded.
-
rugged individualism
A form of individualism that emphasizes self-reliance and ignoring what others want and think.
-
rule-making
The bureaucratic function of creating rules needed to implement policy.
-
rule of four
An informal rule in the Supreme Court: Four justices must agree to hear a case for the Court to issue a writ of certiorari.
-
sample
A group of people who are used to stand in for the whole population in a poll.
-
sampling error
Mistakes in polls caused by bad samples.
-
school vouchers
Government money given to parents to help pay for tuition at private schools.
-
Second Continental Congress
The governing body over the colonies during the revolution that drafted the Articles of Confederation to create the first national government.
-
selective incentives
The lure of benefits that only group members will receive.
-
selective incorporation
Forcing states to abide by only parts of the Bill of Rights, not the whole thing.
-
self-selected candidate
A person who chooses to run for office on his or her own initiative.
-
senatorial courtesy
A tradition in which a Senator, if he or she is of the president’s party, gets input into nominees for federal judgeships in his or her state.
-
separation of powers
Dividing up governmental power among several branches.
-
sexual harassment
Unwanted and inappropriate physical or verbal conduct of a sexual nature that interferes with doing one’s job or creates a hostile work environment.
-
Shays’ Rebellion
A 1786 uprising of Massachusetts farmers against high taxes and debt.
-
signing message
A message attached to a bill the president signs, explaining his or her understanding of the bill.
-
single-member district
A legislative district that sends only one person to the legislature.
-
skewed sample
A sample that is not representative and leads to inaccurate polling results; a deceptive practice used to manipulate public opinion.
-
slander
Publicly stating things that the speaker knows to be untrue that hurt a person’s reputation.
-
social capital
Mutual trust and habits of cooperation that are acquired by people through involvement in community organizations and volunteer groups.
-
socialism
Political view that the free market breeds servitude and inequality and should be abolished.
-
social security
A social insurance program that aims to keep retired people and the disabled out of poverty.
-
sociological representation
A type of representation in which the representative resembles the constituents in ethnic, religious, racial, social, or educational ways.
-
soft money
Unregulated money raised by parties and spent to influence elections indirectly; banned by the 2002 Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act.
-
solicitor general
A high-ranking Justice Department official who submits requests for writs of certiorari to the Supreme Court on behalf of the federal government; he or she also usually argues cases for the government in front the Court.
-
solidarity incentive
The lure of a social benefit, such as friendship, gained by members of an organization.
-
sovereignty
The right to exercise political power in a territory.
-
Speaker of the House
The leader of the House of Representatives, elected by the majority party.
-
special district
A type of local government designed to meet a very specific need.
-
special election
An election to replace a member of Congress who leaves office in between regular elections.
-
specialization
The practice of a group or person becoming extremely knowledgeable and skilled at one specific task.
-
splinter party
A third party formed when a faction from a major party breaks off and forms its own party.
-
split-ticket voting
Voting for candidates from one party for some offices and from the other party for other offices.
-
spoiler
A losing candidate who costs another candidate the election.
-
spoils system
The practice of an elected officials rewarding supporters and allies by giving them government jobs.
-
staffer
A person who works for Congress in a supporting capacity.
-
standard operating procedure
A set of rules established in a bureaucracy that dictate how workers respond to different situations so that all workers respond in the same way.
-
stare decisis
The legal doctrine of following precedent.
-
state
A political unit that has sovereign power over a particular piece of land.
-
statecraft
The exercise of power, guided by wisdom, in pursuit of the public good.
-
State of the Union address
A constitutionally mandated message, given by the president to Congress, in which the president lays out plans for the coming year.
-
statute
A law passed by Congress, a state legislature, or some other government body.
-
stewardship theory
A view of presidential power, put forward by Theodore Roosevelt, arguing that the president is uniquely suited to act for the well-being of the whole nation because he or she is elected by the whole nation.
-
straight-ticket voting
Voting for only candidates from one party.
-
strict constructionism
A judicial philosophy that argues that constitutional interpretation should be limited to the specific wording of the document.
-
subnationalism
Identification with small ethnic and regional groups within a nation.
-
suffrage
The right to vote; also called the franchise.
-
sunset provisions
Expiration dates written into some federal programs; Congress can renew the program if it is satisfied that the program is achieving its objectives.
-
sunshine laws
Laws that require government agencies to hold public proceedings on a regular basis.
-
superdelegate
A party leader or elected official who is automatically granted delegate status for the national convention; superdelegates do not have to be chosen in primaries.
-
Super Tuesday
A term used to describe primary elections held in a large number of states on the same day.
-
Supplemental Security Income
A federal program that provides a minimum income to seniors and the disabled who do not qualify for social security.
-
supply-side economics
An attempt to improve the economy by providing big tax cuts to businesses and wealthy individuals (the supply side). These cuts encourage investment, which then creates jobs, so the effect will be felt throughout the economy; also known as trickle-down economics.
-
supremacy clause
The part of Article VI of the Constitution that specifies that the federal Constitution, and laws passed by the federal government, are the supreme law of the land.
-
supremacy doctrine
The doctrine that national law takes priority over state law; included in the Constitution as the supremacy clause.
-
surplus
When a government spends less money than it takes in.
-
symbolic speech
Actions that are intended to convey a belief.
-
system of government
How power is distributed among different parts and levels of the state.
-
talk radio
A radio format featuring a host who interviews guests that is often very partisan.
-
tax credit
A reduction in one’s tax burden designed to help certain people.
-
Temporary Assistance to Need Families
A federal welfare program that provides money to poor families.
-
term limits
Limits on the number of terms an elected official can serve.
-
terrorism
The use of violent tactics with the aim of creating fear and destabilizing a government; frequently targets civilians.
-
third party
In American politics, any political party other than the Democrats and Republicans.
-
Three-Fifths Compromise
A compromise on how to count slaves for determining population; slaves were counted as three-fifths of a person.
-
totalitarian government
A regime in which the government controls every facet of life.
-
total war
A highly destructive total war in which combatants use every resource available to destroy the social fabric of the enemy.
-
transnational
Something that lies beyond the boundaries of a nation-state or consists of several nation-states.
-
trickle-down economics
An attempt to improve the economy by providing big tax cuts to businesses and wealthy individuals (the supply side). These cuts encourage investment, which then creates jobs, so the effect will be felt throughout the economy; also known as supply-side economics.
-
trustee representation
A type of representation in which the people choose a representative whose judgment and experience they trust. The representative votes for what he or she thinks is right, regardless of the opinions of the constituents.
-
tyranny of the majority
When the majority violate the rights of the minority.
-
unconventional participation
Political activity that, although legal, is not considered appropriate by many people; it includes demonstrations, boycotts, and protests.
-
underemployment
When people who seek work can only find part-time jobs.
-
unemployment
When not everyone who wants a job can find one.
-
unfunded mandate
A mandate for which the federal government gives the states no money.
-
unilateral
A state acting alone in the global arena.
-
unipolar
An international system with a single superpower dominating other states.
-
unitary system
A system of government where power is concentrated in the hands of the central government.
-
unity
The idea that people overwhelmingly support the government and share certain common beliefs even if they disagree about particular policies.
-
user fee
A fee charged by the government to do certain things (e.g., paying a toll to use a tunnel).
-
veto
The power of the president to stop a bill passed by Congress from becoming law.
-
veto message
A message written by the president, attached to a bill he or she has vetoed, which explains the reasons for the veto.
-
Virginia Plan
A plan at the constitutional convention to base representation in the legislature on population.
-
voter turnout
The percentage of citizens who vote in an election.
-
voting behavior
A term used to describe the motives and factors that shape voters’ choices.
-
Voting Rights Act
A law passed in 1965 that banned discrimination in voter registration requirements.
-
War Powers Resolution
Passed by Congress in 1973, the War Powers Resolution demands that the president consult with Congress when sending troops into action; it also gives Congress the power to force withdrawal of troops.
-
Washington community
The “inside the beltway” group that closely follows politics and constantly evaluates the relative power of politicians.
-
watchdog journalism
Journalism that attempts to hold government officials and institutions accountable for their actions.
-
Weberian model
The model of bureaucracy developed by sociologist Max Weber that characterizes bureaucracy as a rational and efficient means of organizing a large group of people.
-
welfare
The term for the set of policies designed to help those in economic need.
-
welfare state
The term to describe the government or country that provides aid to the poor and help to the unemployed.
-
whip
A member of the leadership of a legislative body responsible for counting votes and connecting the leadership with the rank and file.
-
whistleblower
A person who reports wrongdoing in a government agency.
-
White House staff
The people with whom the president works every day.
-
white primary
The practice of political parties only allowing whites to participate in their primaries.
-
winner take all
An electoral system in which the person with the most votes wins everything (and everyone else loses); most states have winner-take-all systems for determining electoral votes.
-
writ of certiorari
The legal document, issued by the Supreme Court, that orders a lower court to send a case to the Supreme Court for review.
-
writ of habeas corpus
A court order requiring that the government show cause for detaining someone and charge him or her with a crime.
-
yellow journalism
Journalism that focuses on shocking and sordid stories to sell newspapers.
